Many language learners regard speaking ability as the measure of knowing a language. These learners define fluency as the ability to converse with others, much more than the ability to read, write, or comprehend oral language. They regard speaking as the most important skill they can acquire, and they assess their progress in terms of their accomplishments in spoken communication.
Language learners need to recognize that speaking involves three areas of knowledge:
Mechanics (pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary): Using the right words in the right order with the correct pronunciation
Functions (transaction and interaction): Knowing when clarity of message is essential (transaction/information exchange) and when precise understanding is not required (interaction/relationship building)
Social and cultural rules and norms (turn-taking, rate of speech, length of pauses between speakers, relative roles of participants): Understanding how to take into account who is speaking to whom, in what circumstances, about what, and for what reason.
In the communicative model of language teaching, instructors help their students develop this body of knowledge by providing authentic practice that prepares students for real-life communication situations. They help their students develop the ability to produce grammatically correct, logically connected sentences that are appropriate to specific contexts, and to do so using acceptable (that is, comprehensible) pronunciation.
Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent "higher" forms of culture.
This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them.
The communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used in instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourism Web sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level.
Reading Purpose and Reading Comprehension
Reading is an activity with a purpose. A person may read in order to gain information or verify existing knowledge, or in order to critique a writer's ideas or writing style. A person may also read for enjoyment, or to enhance knowledge of the language being read. The purpose(s) for reading guide the reader's selection of texts.
The purpose for reading also determines the appropriate approach to reading comprehension. A person who needs to know whether she can afford to eat at a particular restaurant needs to comprehend the pricing information provided on the menu, but does not need to recognize the name of every appetizer listed. A person reading poetry for enjoyment needs to recognize the words the poet uses and the ways they are put together, but does not need to identify main idea and supporting details. However, a person using a scientific article to support an opinion needs to know the vocabulary that is used, understand the facts and cause-effect sequences that are presented, and recognize ideas that are presented as hypotheses and givens.
Reading research shows that good readers
Read extensively
Integrate information in the text with existing knowledge
Have a flexible reading style, depending on what they are reading
Are motivated
Rely on different skills interacting: perceptual processing, phonemic processing, recall
Read for a purpose; reading serves a function
Reading as a Process
Reading is an interactive process that goes on between the reader and the text, resulting in comprehension. The text presents letters, words, sentences, and paragraphs that encode meaning. The reader uses knowledge, skills, and strategies to determine what that meaning is.
Reader knowledge, skills, and strategies include
Linguistic competence: the ability to recognize the elements of the writing system; knowledge of vocabulary; knowledge of how words are structured into sentences
Discourse competence: knowledge of discourse markers and how they connect parts of the text to one another
Sociolinguistic competence: knowledge about different types of texts and their usual structure and content
Strategic competence: the ability to use top-down strategies (see Strategies for Developing Reading Skills for descriptions), as well as knowledge of the language (a bottom-up strategy)
The purpose(s) for reading and the type of text determine the specific knowledge, skills, and strategies that readers need to apply to achieve comprehension. Reading comprehension is thus much more than decoding. Reading comprehension results when the reader knows which skills and strategies are appropriate for the type of text, and understands how to apply them to accomplish the reading purpose.
Perhaps the most important study skill children learn is the ability to listen closely and comprehend what they have heard. As a teacher, students' listening skill levels can make a difference in their performance as well as the class atmosphere. By employing a variety of creative exercises, teachers can help students develop strong listening skills that will aid them throughout their academic careers.
Instructions
Step 1
Introduce the concept of a "main idea." Read a short paragraph to the children. Ask the children to state in one phrase or sentence what the main idea of a story is. Practice summarizing main ideas by reading short stories or fables, asking the children what good titles to the story would be (such as, "Don't Be Selfish!" or "John's Trip to the Store").
Step 2
Ask children to demonstrate listening by predicting the end of a story. Point out contributions that could not be possible according to previously disclosed facts. For instance, if you ask children to predict the end of "Three Little Pigs" you might point out that a prediction of "They run to the straw house!" would not make sense since the straw house was already blown down by the wolf.
Step 3
Encourage children to listen for unfamiliar words and raise their hands to ask for definitions to increase their comprehension.
Step 4
Play a record or tape recording of a children's song. Quiz the children on the song after playing it for the class.
Step 5
Practice learning foreign words that require careful listening. Teach the class to count to 10 in Spanish, repeating the Spanish numbers after you as you say them.
Step 6
Ask children to listen to a set of instructions (such as how to make a simple craft). Ask children to write down notes and then gather them into groups to compare notes and create a group guide to the topic.
Step 7
Play listening games like "Simon Says" or "Hokey Pokey," varying your instructions so that children have to listen closely to succeed.
The most important factor in writing exercises is that students need to be personally involved in order to make the learning experience of lasting value. Encouraging student participation in the exercise, while at the same time refining and expanding writing skills, requires a certain pragmatic approach. The teacher should be clear on what skills he/she is trying to develop. Next, the teacher needs to decide on which means (or type of exercise) can facilitate learning of the target area. Once the target skill areas and means of implmentation are defined, the teacher can then proceed to focus on what topic can be employed to ensure student participation. By pragmatically combing these objectives, the teacher can expect both enthusiasm and effective learning.
Choosing the target area depends on many factors; What level are the students?, What is the average age of the students, Why are the students learning English, Are there any specific future intentions for the writing (i.e school tests or job application letters etc.). Other important questions to ask oneself are: What should the students be able to produce at the end of this exercise? (a well written letter, basic communication of ideas, etc.) What is the focus of the exercise? (structure, tense usage, creative writing). Once these factors are clear in the mind of the teacher, the teacher can begin to focus on how to involve the students in the activity thus promoting a positive, long-term learning experience.
Having decided on the target area, the teacher can focus on the means to achieve this type of learning. As in correction, the teacher must choose the most appropriate manner for the specified writing area. If formal business letter English is required, it is of little use to employ a free expression type of exercise. Likewise, when working on descriptive language writing skills, a formal letter is equally out of place.
With both the target area and means of production, clear in the teachers mind, the teacher can begin to consider how to involve the students by considering what type of activities are interesting to the students; Are they preparing for something specific such as a holiday or test?, Will they need any of the skills pragmatically? What has been effective in the past? A good way to approach this is by class feedback, or brainstorming sessions. By choosing a topic that involves the students the teacher is providing a context within which effective learning on the target area can be understaken.
Finally, the question of which type of correction will facilitate a useful writing exercise is of utmost importance. Here the teacher needs to once again think about the overall target area of the exercise. If there is an immediate task at hand, such as taking a test, perhaps teacher guided correction is the most effective solution. However, if the task is more general (for example developing informal letter writing skills), maybe the best approach would be to have the students work in groups thereby learning from each other. Most importantly, by choosing the correct means of correction the teacher can encourage rather discourage students.
Let us first consider a general approach to foreign language instruction which has been named ‘the Comprehension Approach’. It is called this because of the importance it gives to listening comprehension.
One such method is Krashen and Terrell’s Natural Approach. Emphasis is placed on students’ developing basic communication skills and vocabulary through their receiving meaningful exposure to the target language. The students listen to the teacher using the target language communicatively from the beginning of instruction. They do not speak at first. The teacher helps her students to understand her by using pictures and occasional words in the students’ native language and by being as expressive as possible.
Another method is Winitz and Reed’s self-instructional program and Winitz’ The Learnables. In this method, students listen to tape-recorded words, phrases, and sentences while they look at the students described, to show that they understand their language to which they are listening, but they do not speak.
A new method, called the Lexical Approach. Students’ are given exercises and activities which raise their awareness about their lexical features of the target language. In particular, students are encouraged to notice multi-word lexical items such as ‘I see what you mean’ and ‘Take your time. There’s no hurry’. In this way, the phrasal lexicon of students can be developed.
A fourth method, James Asher’s Total Physical Response (TPR) that the fastest, least stressful way to achieve understanding of any target language is to follow directions uttered by the instructor (without native language translation).
THINKING ABOUT THE EXPERIENCE
Principles
a.Meaning in the target language can often be conveyed through actions.
b.The students’ understanding of the target language should be developed before speaking.
c.Students can initially learn one part of the language rapidly by moving their bodies.
d.The imperative is a powerful linguistic device through which the teacher can direct student behavior.
e.Students can learn through observing actions as well as by performing the actions themselves.
f.It is very important that the students feel successful.
g.Students should not be made to memorize fixed routines.
h.Correction should be carried out in an unobtrusive manner.
i.Students must develop flexibility in understanding novel combinations of target language chunks.
j.Language learning is more effective when it is fun.
k.Spoken language should be emphasized over written language.
l.Students will begin to speak when they are ready.
m.Students are expected to make errors when they first begin speaking.
REVIEWING THE PRINCIPLES
1.What are the goals of teachers who use TPR ?
Teachers who use TPR believe in the importance of having their students enjoy their experience in learning to communicate in a foreign language.
2.What is the role of the teacher ? What is the role of students ?
Initially, the teacher is the director of all student behavior.
3.What are some characteristic of the teaching/learning process ?
The first phase of a lesson is one of modeling.
4.What is the nature of student-teacher interaction ? What is the nature of student-student interaction ?
The teacher interacts with the whole group of students and with individual systems.
5.How are the feelings of students dealt with ?
One of the main reasons TPR was developed was to reduce the stress people feel when studying foreign languages.
6.How is language viewed ? How culture viewed ?
Just as with the acquisition of the native language, the oral modality is primarily.
7.What areas of language are emphasized ? what language skills are emphasized ?
Vocabulary and grammatical structures are emphasized over other language areas.
8.What is the role of students’ native language ?
TPR is usually introduced in the student’s native language.
9.How is evaluation accomplished ?
Teachers will know immediately whether or not students understand by observing their students’ actions.
10.How does the teacher respond to student errors ?
It is expected that students will make errors when they first begin speaking.
